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The Japanese officially terminate their diplomatic ties with Russia after negotiations between the Russian Empire and the Japanese Empire failed. The sole course of action between established and newly-emerging empires was war. The military and racial discrepancies were openly acknowledged among the Japanese officers. They wanted to firmly establish dominance over the Yellow Sea and the Bohai Sea, thus they were resolved to eliminate the Russians as soon as possible. Their national interest in Northeast China was to be protected by this plan. In light of this, the Imperial Japanese navy decided to conduct an unexpected attack against the Pacific Fleet at Port Arthur and also sent the Imperial Japanese troops to land at Inchon in Korea. The army and navy were going to work together closely to take over Port Arthur. As a result of this unexpected onslaught, Nicholas II of Russia decided to attack the Japanese Empire. Sailors were prepared for battle, and soldiers were poised for the assault. The Pacific Fleet decided to remain at Port Arthur and wait for the Baltic Fleet rather than engage the Combined Fleet in a crucial engagement that might have an undetermined outcome. The admirals decided to implement the blockade of Port Arthur because the Japanese had to move quickly and the Russian battleships posed a threat to them. Two efforts ultimately failed, and one of the Japanese admirals, Hirose Takeo, died in the second one. Stepan Makarov, the vice-admiral of the Pacific Fleet, gave his life when the Petropavlovsk, the fleet's flagship, tripped a naval mine. A devastating blow was given to the whole Pacific Fleet. However, it would be dangerous if the Combined Fleet launched a naval assault against the Pacific Fleet close to Port Arthur since the Pacific Fleet's coastal artillery would punish it. As a result, the Imperial Japanese Army emerged as Port Arthur's only prospect of conquest. The British Empire also sent the Japanese a military message: The Baltic Fleet is going to the Far East. The army was immediately requested by the Japanese admirals to undertake a full-scale attack from the Korean peninsula to Northeast China in order to seize Port Arthur as soon as possible. The Russian army was first fully attacked by the Imperial Japanese army. Despite having an advantage over the Japanese army, the Russian generals ordered their troops to retreat to Port Arthur, which had a powerful defence system. In this regard, the Japanese soldiers started to show up in those highlands close to Port Arthur. The Pacific Fleet was being shelled by Japanese battleships as well, but the Russian admiral Wilhelm Vitgeft led the entire fleet to break free and make an attempt to unite with the Vladivostok squadron. But during this military operation, the well-prepared Japanese sailors were able to kill Wilhelm Vitgeft and destroy Tsesarevich. Even though the Pacific Fleet was unable to reach Vladivostok and instead returned to Port Arthur, the Imperial Japanese Army was under more military pressure. The Russians used newly developed grenades, Maxim's machine gun, and electrical wires to kill thousands of Japanese soldiers in that instant, despite the fact that the Japanese soldiers were heavily influenced by Bushido and prepared to die for their country. This caused the Japanese to suffer a significant loss. The army should hold 203 Hill and send out many 28cm howitzers to cover the Japanese forces during their biggest charge of the Russo-Japanese War, said Akiyama Saneyuki, a professional officer in the Imperial Japanese navy, to resolve this military impasse. Under lethal bombardment from the Russian side, the military officials swung their samurai swords and charged with their warriors in the spirit of Bushido. All Japanese were ready to sacrifice their life for Emperor Meiji because they understood that the outcome of this war would determine the future of their country. The Japanese army was also able to take control of 203 Hill, one of the bloodiest engagements between Japanese and Russian forces during the Siege of Port Arthur, thanks to Yasusuke Nogi, the second son of Maresuke Nogi (the commander of the Japanese Third Army). The Pacific Fleet may be destroyed by the Japanese by installing all available artillery. The commander once asked the Nicolas II of Russia to permit the Baltic Fleet to return to St. Petersburg as they had just received dreadful news from the Far East. However, Nicolas II rejected this proposal since he had placed all his faith in the Baltic Fleet. The sailors of the Combined Fleet, on the other hand, had a full rest and preparation before engaging the Baltic Fleet. Despite the great military power of the Baltic Fleet, different battleships had differing standards and designs. Japan had a military edge as a result of the United Kingdom manufacturing all of the battleships for the Combined Fleets. The fleet admiral of the Imperial Japanese Navy, Togo Heihachiro, was adamant that the Baltic Sea Fleet would sail via the Tsushima Strait because of a scarcity of fuel. The Japanese had a successful engagement at Tsushima Strait due to favourable timing and geographic advantages (Battle of Tsushima). The Japanese began talking with the Russians to stop the war as they basked in their stories of victory. Reference: D Steinberg J W Wolff (Eds. (2007). Russo-Japanese War in global perspective ; World War Zero. Vol. 2. (pp. 87–178). Brill. Esthus, R. A. (1981). Nicholas II and the Russo-Japanese War. Russian Review, 40(4), 396. https://doi.org/10.2307/129919 McKercher, B. J. C. (1989). Diplomatic Equipoise: The Lansdowne Foreign Office the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905, and the Global Balance of Power. Canadian Journal of History, 24(3), 299–340. https://doi.org/10.3138/cjh.24.3.299 Wurtzburg, S. J. (2006). Choctaw Women in a Chaotic World: The Clash of Cultures in the Colonial Southeast. Ethnohistory, 53(4), 774–776. https://doi.org/10.1215/00141801-2006-027

As the Japanese government anticipated war with the Russian Empire, they made every effort to obtain adequate military funding. Despite the fact that the entire country supported the principle of 'enrich the country, strengthen the Armed Forces,' citizens' financial burden had reached its limit or a further socio-economic burden might trigger public anger. Because of this imminent concern, the Imperial Conference debated whether Japan’s financial strength would be sufficient to support a long-term war. Unsurprisingly, the Japanese Empire was incapable of supporting a large-scale war. Japan’s public finance revenue and active military personnel were only a tenth of those of the Russian Empire. Hence, the former Japanese General Viscount Kodama Gentaro believed that a military conflict with Russia was a suicide mission. Although it was a tall order to challenge the Russian Empire, the Japanese government decided to send Takahashi Korekiyo, the deputy governor of the Bank of Japan, to sell national loans to Western countries. However, no foreign power was willing to offer Japan wartime capital because the upcoming war was a one-sided contest between the Russian Empire and the Japanese Empire. Furthermore, as 'White Supremacy' demonstrated the disparity between white and non-white countries, the European empire has yet to be defeated in a large-scale war by a non-Western empire. When Mr Takahashi Korekiyo became disheartened and discouraged, he consulted with Jacob Schiff, a German-born Jewish American banker, in Paris in April 1904. As a solemn response to the Russian Empire's anti-Semitic actions, particularly the Kishinev pogrom a year ago, Jacob Schiff agreed to make loans to the Japanese Empire totalling $180 million. Meanwhile, the British Empire generously extended loans totalling 36 million British pounds to the Japanese Empire. Despite receiving massive wartime loans to prepare for a large-scale war, Japan's arms industry could not support this impending military conflict solely. The Imperial Japanese Navy found that purchasing battleships from the British Empire was the most effective solution. Six battleships, four armoured cruisers, two cruisers, sixteen destroyers, and ten torpedo boats were manufactured by the British. In addition, the Japanese admirals learned every military strategy from the Royal Navy. Given this, the British aided the Japanese in significantly increasing their military might. Furthermore, British diplomats did everything they could to discourage the Russians from purchasing battleships from other countries. The Royal Navy also raised the possibility of a clash with the Baltic Fleet if they joined the war in the Far East. As a result, the Japanese had plenty of time to prepare for war when the British provided diplomatic and military support. After obtaining more military, wartime loans, and diplomatic support, Japanese admirals and generals felt more confident. It is time to fight the Russian Empire! References Best, G. D. (1972). Financing a Foreign War: Jacob H. Schiff and Japan, 1904–05. American Jewish Historical Quarterly, 61(4), 313–324. British Assistance to the Japanese Navy during the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-5. (1980). The Great Circle, 2(1), 44–54. D Steinberg J W Wolff (Eds. (2007). Russo-Japanese War in global perspective ; World War Zero. Vol. 2. (pp. 87–178). Brill. Esthus, R. A. (1981). Nicholas II and the Russo-Japanese War. Russian Review, 40(4), 396. https://doi.org/10.2307/129919 McKercher, B. J. C. (1989). Diplomatic Equipoise: The Lansdowne Foreign Office the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905, and the Global Balance of Power. Canadian Journal of History, 24(3), 299–340. https://doi.org/10.3138/cjh.24.3.299 Wurtzburg, S. J. (2006). Choctaw Women in a Chaotic World: The Clash of Cultures in the Colonial Southeast. Ethnohistory, 53(4), 774–776. https://doi.org/10.1215/00141801-2006-027

The Anglo-Japanese Alliance was officially formed on the 30th of January 1902. “Survival of the fittest” was the motto of that era so common interest was the only foundation of this unusual alliance. Let me share some history and international interactions before this alliance with you. The British Empire defeated Qing China and seized lots of Chinese lands to establish its sphere of influence six decades ago. Hong Kong, the banks of the Yangtze River, Tibet and Guangdong had the British sphere of influence, impacting the British national interest directly. What’s more, “Splendid isolation” was the British diplomatic approach, implying that the British would not ally with other foreign power. However, the German Empire, the Kingdom of Italy and the Austria-Hungary Empire formed the Triple Alliance. In contrast, the Russian Empire and the French Third Republic formed the “French-Russian Alliance” simultaneously. The British had less discursive power so an international ally was desperately needed. Meanwhile, the Japanese were afraid of the Russian military might and its rapid territorial expansion. They clearly understood the deadly consequence of solely confronting the Russian Empire. Since the British and the Japanese had an enormous national interest in the Far East, it became a catalyst to form an Anglo-Japanese Alliance. The Japanese had more substantial confidence when they got backed up by the British Empire. Even if the French allied with the Russian, the French was reluctant to declare war on the British. In other words, this French-Russo alliance became an empty and hollow title. Although the Western European powers trembled with fear on hearing of the Russian’s Baltic sea fleet, the British had a naval blockade against the Russian Empire. The Baltic Sea Fleet had to sail to the Far East by choosing a farther route. Even though the Russians owned the Black Sea Fleet, the Ottoman Empire practically controlled the Bosphorus Strait. Thus the Black Sea Fleet became a “paper tiger”. With diplomatic support from the Germans, French and Americans, the British and the Japanese urged the Russians to retreat their troops from the North-Eastern part of China. Even though the Russians initially fulfilled their promise, their unscrupulous ambition was reluctant to relinquish this vast region in China. The final negotiation between Japan and Russia failed. The Japanese Imperial Navy decided to bombard the Russian Fleet at Port Arthur. This war received worldwide attention because it was “David vs Goliath”. How could the Japanese defeat the Russians with all their might? Stay tuned to the next post! Reference: D Steinberg J W Wolff (Eds. (2007). Russo-Japanese War in global perspective ; World War Zero. Vol. 2. (pp. 87–178). Brill. Esthus, R. A. (1981). Nicholas II and the Russo-Japanese War. Russian Review, 40(4), 396. https://doi.org/10.2307/129919 McKercher, B. J. C. (1989). Diplomatic Equipoise: The Lansdowne Foreign Office the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905, and the Global Balance of Power. Canadian Journal of History, 24(3), 299–340. https://doi.org/10.3138/cjh.24.3.299 Wurtzburg, S. J. (2006). Choctaw Women in a Chaotic World: The Clash of Cultures in the Colonial Southeast. Ethnohistory, 53(4), 774–776. https://doi.org/10.1215/00141801-2006-027

The Russo-Japanese War is a turning point in modern history. The Japanese victory symbolised Asia’s fighting ability to knock out the Western power, enjoying the rise of international status rather than being subjugated. So how did the Japanese defeat the Russian Empire, 12 times larger than them? The pre-war’s global interaction is the first page of this magnificent story. The Russians desired perfect warm-water ports for potential invasion and socio-economic interactions with foreign countries since the reign of Peter the Great in the 17th century. Because of that, Peter the Great ordered the establishment of St.Petersburg as the new capital of the Russian Empire to have a closer economic exchange with affluent Western Europe. Even though the vast Siberia, Caucasus in Central Asia and part of Poland were vanquished by mighty Cossack cavalry, the Russian’s further expansion was obstructed by neighbouring countries in the West and Western colonies in the South. On the other hand, the rise of the British Empire colonised lots of foreign lands so a buffer zone was desperately needed to protect a tremendous interest in British India. Afghanistan became an ideal barrier for the British Empire because of its geographical location and complicated terrain. Still, it became a political and military confrontation, a so-called “the Great Game”, between the Russian Empire and the British Empire. Both empires confirmed the borderline to avoid a devastating war. Besides, the Russians launched several intrusions into Persia (Nowadays: Iran) to obtain warm-water ports. If the Russians could attain their goals, the Russian navies might threaten the British sea routes to the Far East. Because of that, the British sought to build up an alliance with the Ottoman Empire to restrain the Russian Black Sea Fleet so as not to enter the Mediterranean Sea, the Persian Gulf and the Indian Sea. To take a further step, the British Empire even actively invaded Southern Persia to control all warm-water ports before the arrival of Russian troops. In brief, the Russian dream of warm-water ports was greatly hindered by British influence, so the Liaodong Peninsula became their next target. Meanwhile, the Japanese understood that modernisation was the only way to avoid being conquered by Western imperialism, so they experienced unprecedented westernisation and modernisation, the “Meiji Restoration”, in the late 19th century. From Emperor Meiji to the peasants, they were resolute to strengthen their military mighty whatever the cost may be. Unparalleled solidarity let the Japanese government purchase western military equipment and consultants no matter how expensive they were. In 1895, the modernised Japanese Imperial army and navy defeated Qing China in the First Sino-Japanese War and annexed Taiwan (Formosa), Penghu and the Liaodong Peninsula. With foreign support from the German Empire and the French Third Republic, the furious Russians compelled the Japanese to relinquish the sovereignty of the Liaodong Peninsula because it was their warm-water port’s ideal target. All Japanese held a grudge against the Russian Empire but couldn’t avenge it due to an imbalanced military ability. This became the prelude to the Russo-Japanese war in the future. A waning Qing China sought an alliance with the Russian Empire to resist Japanese military aggression. In return, the Russians could lease Port Arthur and even construct the formidable defensive site. They were also permitted to build railways within China so that Russia’s sphere of influence was rapidly increased in the North-Eastern part of China. The Japanese were anxious because they had to confront a high-handed Russian Empire. In this sense, Japan and the British Empire had a common enemy and instantly formed an Anglo-Japanese Alliance in 1902. See Part 2 for more. Reference: D Steinberg J W Wolff (Eds. (2007). Russo-Japanese War in global perspective ; World War Zero. Vol. 2. (pp. 87–178). Brill. Esthus, R. A. (1981). Nicholas II and the Russo-Japanese War. Russian Review, 40(4), 396. https://doi.org/10.2307/129919 McKercher, B. J. C. (1989). Diplomatic Equipoise: The Lansdowne Foreign Office the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905, and the Global Balance of Power. Canadian Journal of History, 24(3), 299–340. https://doi.org/10.3138/cjh.24.3.299 Wurtzburg, S. J. (2006). Choctaw Women in a Chaotic World: The Clash of Cultures in the Colonial Southeast. Ethnohistory, 53(4), 774–776. https://doi.org/10.1215/00141801-2006-027

Following the death of her late majesty Queen Elizabeth II, Prince Charles, the former Prince of Wales, became King Charles III. As a new reign begins, King Charles III will undoubtedly face significant challenges in the coming months. This article will go over his upcoming challenges in more detail. Can he serve as a source of stability between the British people and the Royal Family in the same way that his late mother, Queen Elizabeth II, did for the last seven decades? Challenge 1: Campaign to abolish the monarchy The British monarchy has been called into question by anti-monarchists. Because they firmly believe that no one should be granted special treatment or rights simply because they were born. However, taxpayers have been providing the Royal Family with the sovereign grant. By 2021, the Royal Family had spent £102 million on Buckingham Palace renovations and a series of official events. Anti-monarchists believe that the British Royal Family has relatively less influence in economic and political matters, with the exception of a positive effect on tourism. Nonetheless, all revenues, daily expenses, and assets are opaque. Furthermore, anti-monarchists argue that monarchy is no longer compatible with modern society and that it should be abolished. Instead, they believe that Britain should have a head of state who is elected by the people rather than by the hereditary system. As a result, this Campaign has grown to be a significant force in mainstream society. Due to egalitarianism and opposition to hereditary institutions, some hashtags, such as #notmyking and #AbolishTheMonarchy, have gone viral on the internet. The British Social Attitudes Survey has been gathering data on how the British perceive the constitutional monarchy. According to this long-term study, the younger generation (aged 18 to 34) has the least support for the Royal Family. Only 55% of British people believe the Royal Family is "important" to the country, while the majority of the older generation supports the Royal Family. If the Royal Family is an important part of 'British soft power' in British diplomacy, the monarchy's abolition may raise a slew of complicated issues. It is difficult to deny that King Charles III is facing a wave of anti-monarchy protests. This campaign will undoubtedly put his charisma and ability to preserve the United Kingdom's constitutional monarchy to the test. Challenge 2: The British colonisation The British royal family has always been associated with colonialism's impact during the Empire era. Although former Queen Elizabeth II was a source of unity for the United Kingdom and the Commonwealth, some leftist scholars emphasise how the legacy of slavery and colonial rules has impacted their modern lives. As a result, leftists constantly criticise the royal family and British history. According to Marlon Kameka, a British activist and artist, all history lessons only mention the magnificence of the British Empire without showing how British colonisers manipulated Kenyans a century ago through a series of inhuman methods. Even after being exposed and accused of a heinous atrocity by the public, the British Royal Family has not officially apologised or offered any compensation. Furthermore, the South African has been signing a petition urging the Royal Family to return 'Cullinan I,' which was embedded in the sceptre and the Imperial State Crown following Queen Elizabeth II's death. The Cape Colony sent this as a gift to British King Edward VII to demonstrate its complete devotion. South Africans, on the other hand, believe that the Royal Family illegally obtained this purple diamond and that the Queen's sceptre and crown are associated with British colonialism. As the West has seen left-wing campaigns, many historical figures and events are being re-evaluated by the general public. Can King Charles III use his wisdom to alleviate public pressure? Challenge 3: Referendums within the Commonwealth Several member states intend to hold a referendum to allow citizens to vote on whether their countries should abolish the constitutional monarchy and become republics. The Australian republic referendum was held in 1999 to determine whether Australia should become a republic with a President. The constitutional monarchy was supported by 54.87% of Australians. Furthermore, despite the fact that Canadian Prime Minister Justin Trudeau has stated that Canada will not end its relationship with the British Royal Family. However, more than half of Canadians believed that after Queen Elizabeth II died, Canada should become a republic. Jamaica is on the verge of leaving the Commonwealth and becoming a fully independent state. More people will associate the British monarchy's benefits from colonisation as they acknowledge the effects of British colonisation. Although these member states retain constitutional monarchies, the upcoming referendums will put King Charles III's ability to maintain Commonwealth solidarity to the test. Challenge 4: The Scottish independence England and Scotland have many unresolved and complex histories, as well as socioeconomic disparities. For example, the majority of Scots believe that "Brexit" will result in an unprecedented economic downturn. Instead of being passively bound with the entire United Kingdom, the Scots should have the right to decide their own future. Furthermore, the Scots consider Scotland to be a 'country' with a set of socio-cultural beliefs. As in the past, Brexit and the impending economic crisis caused by the Ukrainian-Russian war have become the fuels for Scottish independence. Nicola Sturgeon, the First Minister of Scotland, proposed a second Scottish independence referendum in October 2023. King Charles III is concerned about his ability to unite his country in the same way that his late mother did. Challenge 5: An unpopular King? The public has a negative opinion of King Charles III and the late Princess Diana. He destroyed the "wedding of the century." According to YouGov, King Charles III came in seventh (42%) among all family members, with Prince William coming in third (66%) and Princess Catherine of Wales coming in second (68%). Can King Charles III win the hearts of the British people through public service? If he cannot win over the hearts and minds of people all over the world, the constitutional monarchy will face significant challenges, including potential referendums. Fortunately, Prince William of Wales and his family have won the hearts of the public in recent years. Reference: Barrand, R. (2022). Some countries are calling for the return of diamonds following death of the Queen. Www.nationalworld.com. https://www.nationalworld.com/news/queen-elizabeth-ii-south-african-cullinan-diamond-jewels-3846349 Bricket, D. J., & Simpson, S. (2022). Canadians Conflicted on Future Role of Monarchy as Half (54%) Say Canada Should End Ties to Monarchy. Https://Www.ipsos.com/En-Ca/News-Polls/Canadians-Conflicted-On-Future-Role-of-Monarchy; Ipsos. Chieri, L. (2016). How important is the monarchy to British people? [Review of How important is the monarchy to British people?]. Https://Www.natcen.ac.uk/Blog/How-Important-Is-The-Monarchy-To-British-People; NatCen Social Research. Edwards, C. (2022). “Not my King”: Anti-monarchy protesters face police crackdown in the UK. CNN. https://edition.cnn.com/2022/09/16/europe/anti-monarchy-protests-police-intl-gbr/index.html Williams, L. (2022). Bloomberg - Are you a robot? Www.bloomberg.com. https://www.bloomberg.com/opinion/articles/2022-09-18/queen-elizabeth-ii-britain-mourns-as-monarchy-s-future-falls-to-charles-l87aduua

China’s Great Leap Forward (1958-62) is a nationwide socio-economic project led by Mao Zedong and his Chinese Communist Party (CCP). Its goal was to mobilise China’s huge population to achieve major growth in the industrial and agricultural sectors while progressing to be a communist, modern society. However, it resulted in an economic failure and a catastrophic famine. Background After the People’s Republic of China (PRC) was founded, Mao had been ambitious about China’s development in comparison to the Western capitalist world. The success of the first Five-Year Plan fueled Mao’s confidence in China’s transition to a socialist and, ultimately, a communist society. Mao believed that China’s massive population of 600 million meant that China had the largest production force in the world and could industrialise through labour-intensive methods. Mao was determined to accelerate China’s modernisation. The Rectification Movement and Anti-Rightist Movement in the earlier period of the PRC created a political atmosphere in which people dared not to voice their opposition against the government and the Party. Yet, the grain shortages in the second half of 1957 were a signpost that a new developmental strategy was needed. The Party thus pushed for further collectivisation and set a more radical goal: to surpass the UK and the US in a decade. Without adequate knowledge of the Economy and reality checks, Mao and his supporters launched the Great Leap Forward aiming for sky-high production of steel and grain. Backyard Furnaces and People’s Communes Boosting steel production occupied the nation’s workforce in 1957-58. Peasants were mobilised to build village iron smelters (or backyard furnaces). The initiative was met with great enthusiasm but proved to be a failure. Under the orders of the Party, the Chinese peasants threw ample raw materials, like ore, coal, and timber, as well as everyday metal implements, into the loosely-built furnaces. At least 10 per cent of China’s forests were burnt to fuel the furnaces. Yet, all the farmers who had been sent into steel smelting - instead of harvesting the crops- only produced unusable iron. In addition, the Party focused on large infrastructure projects such as building dams and irrigations. In compensation for the lack of mechanical technology, local authorities mobilised hundreds of thousands of peasants to work in physically-demanding positions far away from their homes. The ignorance of expertise led to a waste of resources, increased accidents, unnecessary damage to the natural environment, and lower efficiency. Radical changes were also made in social institutions. The People’s Communes were established nationwide for more comprehensive collectivisation. A large number of peasants in multiple villages were combined to be a single administrative unit. The commune members worked collectively and received equal income and services like dining, schooling, and healthcare. Unfortunately, this system was exploited by cadres who had control over food distribution, and free-riders who contributed little in labour. The unrealistic goal for agricultural production also demoralised the peasants. In order to fulfil the quota set by the central government, the communes were all taxed heavily, and the peasants had little left for themselves. Impact The unrealistic goals, improper execution, maldistribution of resources, and the loopholes in the policies in the Great Leap Forward campaign resulted in low agricultural production. Worse still, the tax imposed on the provinces became unbearably heavy, and the peasants only had a scarce amount of crops. It culminated in the Great Famine in 1958. It is estimated that between 15 million to 43 million people died from starvation from 1959 to 1961. The Great Leap Forward also led to low economic growth, as acknowledged by the government. A folk poem spread among the peasants illustrates lively the toil of the Great Leap Forward: Great Leap Forward, a daring deadly move; Pots, pans, ladles, and spoons, all removed. Making steel is what we are meant to do; Trees are felled as part of this too; But not even iron is made; And future destruction is laid. References Manning, Kimberley Ens and Felix Wemheuer ed. (2011). Eating bitterness : New perspectives on china's great leap forward and famine. Vancouver: UBC Press. Hu, A. (2013). The great leap forward, 1957-1965. Enrich Professional Publishing Private Limited. Hsiung, P. and Wang, Y. (2019). “Unmasking China’s Great Leap Forward and Great Famine (1958-1962) Through Shunkouliu (顺口溜).” Qualitative Inquiry, 25(8), 811-821. Yang, J. (2008). Mubei: 1958-1962 nian zhongguo dajihuang jishi [Tombstone: Collections on China’s Great Famine, (1958-1962)]. Hong Kong: Tiandi Books. Dikötter, Frank (2018). Mao's great famine: the history of China's most devastating catastrophe, 1958-62. Bloomsbury Paperbacks.

The Chinese Republican era (1912-1949) is the time when American relief worker Walter Mallory famously named China the “Land of Famine.” After the Qing period, the new central government in Nanjing did not have much control of the Chinese territory. Regional warlords – mostly former Qing generals – fought against each other and divided China into pieces. While civil wars befell China, the wet season never arrived in 1919. The North China – suffered from a severe famine in 1876-79, and as mentioned in our last article – once again faced a deadly food crisis from 1919-21. By the mid-Qing period, the region north of the Yellow River was in a loop of droughts and floods. Years of deforestation and the disastrous flood in 1917 laid the ground for a serious famine. In addition, crops in North China heavily relied on the summer rainy season, and when it did not come in time, so did the harvests that the peasants counted their lives on. However, like the one in Qing, this large-scale famine did not happen only due to natural disasters. Shortly after the establishment of the Republic of China came the warlord period (1916-27), and the Northern area of China lost its political stability. Warlords with different degrees of military and political prowess kept fighting against each other in the 1920s. As always, civilians were impoverished in lengthy wars. Most of the regional resources were expropriated, and heavy taxation was imposed. The warlords also demanded the peasants to grow cash crops like opium, in order to raise more capital for the army. As the situation worsened – more famine-stricken fled from home, skyrocketing number of deaths from starvation – the central government tried to help by providing famine-relief funding and coordinating famine-relief efforts around the country. Local gentries and Buddhists generated relief for their neighbouring communities as well. International organizations (such as the Red Cross), foreign-funded China NGOs, and religious groups also provided aid. As this decade witnessed the internationalization of disaster relief. There were international fundraising campaigns to raise money for famine relief in the United States, Hong Kong, and Great Britain. They provided loans, grants, grains, and clothes to the North Chinese. However, their service and aid were less effective than expected, as the continuing wars destroyed many train rails and interrupted food transport from the South. Moreover, the lack of supervision and a weak central state made it easy for local officials to embezzle the relief fund. As a result of the unfortunate warlord feuds and natural disasters, and the fortunate large-scale famine relief endeavour, the famine struck 20 million people in the five North China provinces, and caused about 500,000 deaths by 1921. Many girls and women were sold by their families in exchange for money or food. Female newborns were also killed on a large scale. Much productive labour fled east- and south-ward. The North became a devastated land. Unfortunately, the droughts-floods loops did not terminate but lingered till the entire Republican era. Food crises were even worse when Japan started to encroach on China. However, all these are incomparable in deathliness and scale to the Great Famine from 1959 to 1961, which will be the topic of our next article. References Manning, Kimberley Ens and Felix Wemheuer ed. (2011). Eating bitterness : New perspectives on china's great leap forward and famine. Vancouver: UBC Press. Hu, A. (2013). The great leap forward, 1957-1965. Enrich Professional Publishing Private Limited. Hsiung, P. and Wang, Y. (2019). “Unmasking China’s Great Leap Forward and Great Famine (1958-1962) Through Shunkouliu (顺口溜).” Qualitative Inquiry, 25(8), 811-821. Yang, J. (2008). Mubei: 1958-1962 nian zhongguo dajihuang jishi [Tombstone: Collections on China’s Great Famine, (1958-1962)]. Hong Kong: Tiandi Books. Dikötter, Frank (2018). Mao's great famine: the history of China's most devastating catastrophe, 1958-62. Bloomsbury Paperbacks.

In our last article, we explored the fascinating food scene in the mid-Ming Dynasty – the lavish dishes, the new cooking techniques, and the extravagant feasts… Late Ming was the time when gastronomic development of imperial China culminated, but it also showed the signs of large-scale famines that lasted till the Qing dynasty. This article will talk about how the Chinese diet degraded from delicious meals and snacks to barks and tree roots in just a few decades. It was not obvious to the people at the time that they would face famines. In late Ming, “New World '' grains, like corn, sweet potatoes, and potatoes were bought to China through marine trade. These high yield crops had spread to the whole nation since mid-Qing. These crops were resilient to low rainfall, could be stored for a long period, and could be planted in mountainous areas in poor soil with minimum cultivation. While they were important alternatives when rice was in shortage, they were considered much less desirable than mains, a daily source of carbohydrates, due to Chinese customs and their tastes. Scholars pointed out that corn and sweet potatoes were far from extensively consumed during the Qing period, as the traditional diet remained mostly unchanged during imperial Chinese history. Thus, these imported high-yield crops did not save the land from the deadliest famine in the history of imperial China. In late-Ming, the drastic drop in temperature during the "Little Ice Age" froze the soil and roots of grains, thus leading to years of famine. However, the worst was yet to come. Between 1876 and 1879, famines struck the northern provinces, following the drought in the Yellow River basin area and low rainfall. When the situation became more stabilized in 1879, there were about 10 million deceased due to starvation and famine-related diseases, among the 100 million people who had suffered from malnutrition and refuge in the region. Why did the drought hit China so badly? Why wasn’t food available to the northerners? The answer is complicated (as always!), but it was not entirely due to the insufficiency of food across China, and the drought is not the only one to blame. Many historians attributed the famine to the problem of overpopulation, after the population boom from 1700 to 1850, with which grain production could not catch up. On top of that, the famine exposes the weakened Qing state’s incapability in controlling national resources. Facing internal rebellions and foreign threats of invasion, the late-Qing state was falling apart, and could not control localities nor had the financial resources like a century ago. State-sponsored granaries were not under tight supervision and were often embezzled and emptied by corrupt local officials. The northern famine was part of the result of failure in large-scale coordinated campaigns of transporting food across the nation. The area which relied on planting cash crops in exchange for grains and money suffered severely during a national shortage of grains. Unfortunately, the central government could not distribute resources among regions and control the circulation of grain effectively. Catastrophic famines were almost always a product of both natural disasters and man-made food crises. Those who were devastated in the late-Qing famine were not the last batch of victims of unequal distribution of resources; and also not the last to resort to cannibalism. Their descendants in the Republican era would continue to suffer from insufficient food, on top of rapid nationwide civil wars. References Edgerton-Tarpley, Kathryn. “North China famine, 1876-79.” https://disasterhistory.org/north-china-famine-1876-79 Li, Lillian M. “Introduction: Food, Famine, and the Chinese State.” The Journal of Asian Studies, vol. 41, no. 4, [Cambridge University Press, Association for Asian Studies], 1982, 687–707.

What did people in the Ming Dynasty (1368 -1644) eat? This depends on whether you ask the Chinese living in the early to mid-Ming, or those living in the late Ming. The former would go on and on about the lavish, exotic food that China had never had in previous dynasties; while the latter would simply answer, “Nothing.” Let’s first explore the robust food scene in the mid-Ming Dynasty. It was a relatively peaceful era with sky-rocketing population growth. The economy of Ming China was the largest in the world in its time, and also saw a leap in agricultural technology. As a result, most commoners did not have to live with an empty stomach and enjoyed three meals a day. Ming people mostly had refined grain as their staple– a practice that has passed down till now. Northerners mostly ate noodles, while southerners rice. Vegetables, available in more than 50 types, were more common as side dishes than meat. While food consumption was a daily, survival necessity, more people saw it as a pleasure and a social platform. According to both imperial records and popular literature, Ming was indeed a time when food culture thrived. Matteo Ricci, a prominent Italian Jesuit, observed that commoners were indulging in the pleasure of eating in Southern Ming, where the soil was very fertile, and the price of grains, fruits, and vegetables was low. He wrote that Ming Chinese was a wealthier society than Europe. Its affluence was especially noticeable among the rising middle class, who emerged from expanded markets and larger commercial plantations. Dining was a place where these wealthy gentries and merchants showed off their financial prowess. Ming literature recorded an instance when every guest got a whole chicken and goose, along with a tower of fruits in a gentry’s banquet for a local commander. Along with the quantity, the quality of dishes also increased. Compared to the Song Dynasty, cooking techniques became more diversified and systemized in Ming. There were about a dozen methods of solely cooking eggs, as mentioned in Ming's popular romantic novel “Golden Lotus.” The intellectual class contributed to inventing exquisite dishes, as an escape from the wheeling and dealing in the government. Along with other types of lavish entertainment, indulgent dining symbolized the materialistic, consumerism culture in society. They went to great lengths to find the best ingredients, recipes, restaurants, chefs, cooking wares. They experimented with unique, peculiar cooking methods. As one intellectual recorded a special way to cook goose feet, a luxury and popular dish, put the living goose’s feet into boiling oil, then throw the goose into a pool of water, and they would keep hopping from pain; Repeat the process, and the goose feet would be juicy and had a rich flavour. Their fashionable dishes also benefited greatly from the imported ingredients from the New World. As marine trade and the coastal economy were on the rise during the Age of Discovery, many foreign goods began to enter and gain popularity in China, including tomatoes, pumpkins, sweet potatoes, and corns… These food ingredients were merely a tiny fraction of a large variety of imported goods from the west, along with firearms, animals, silver, and more. While foreign high-yield crops were only ubiquitous nation-wide in Qing, imported spices were very popular both in the Imperial Court and among the populace. Chilli pepper entered China at this time and became the defining ingredient of Sichuan cuisine till now. A large amount of sugar imported also made delicate baked sweets more available. Interestingly, pepper, also an imported good, was used as pay officials and soldiers in Ming. These imported goods were transported from coastal cities to the capital in the north and other cities, with the rapid development of nation-wide trade. For example, the consumption of luxury seafood like bêche-de-Mer and shark fin became institutionalized dishes as a part of banquets prepared for emperors. The extravagant gastronomy in mid-Ming shows how prosperous China was in the fifteenth and sixteenth century. Advancement in agriculture, commerce, marine trade, and the military created a stable and wealthy society. Food was a noticeable field of the increase of standard of living, the culture of enjoyment, and the rapid exchanges between China and the west. These pose interesting, yet tragic, questions: how did this thriving food scene disappear gradually in late Ming? How did the commoners descend from consuming three meals a day with a great variety of vegetables, to eating barks, roots, or even their fellow humans? Our next article in the series “Food and Famine” will offer some insights into these questions.

The duties of the Household Division are many and varied. As the elite of the British and Commonwealth forces, they have more than the responsibilities of ordinary soldiers, and this article will briefly introduce their duties. Buckingham Palace, St James's Palace and Windsor Castle, where Her Majesty the Queen Elizabeth the Second and members of the Royal Family worked, lived and spent their holidays, were not to be denied security. As early as 1982, Buckingham Palace was broken by a man named Michael Fagan. Michael Fagan broke into Buckingham Palace in 1982 because of lax security, and even entered the Queen's bedchamber (bedroom) and spoke to her, as seen in an episode of The Crown on Netflix and a similar incident in 2019. Of course, Mr Fagan had no intention of harming the Queen but was only trying to convey to her the tragedy of his own unemployment as a result of Thatcherism, but it also reflects the importance of the security work. As the sovereign's private army, the Household Division had the duty of guarding the sovereign's safety. While the changing of the guard ceremony in front of Buckingham Palace was part of entertainment for visitors, the soldiers had the right to shoot anyone who intended to enter and do harmful behaviours. From time to time, troops from the Commonwealth, such as the Canadian Grenadier Guards of Canada or the Royal Malay Regiment of Malaysia, would also visit London on duty. At the same time, the Household Division, as part of the British Army, was required to carry out its national duties as a member of the Army. In the aftermath of the terrorist attacks on the USA, the UK was an ally of the US in Afghanistan and Iraq. The Grenadier Guards fought with distinction in Operation Herrick, the Coldstream Guards killed Taliban terrorists on three tours of Afghanistan, and the Welsh Guards defended the capital Kabul. The Scots Guards have been stationed in remote areas of Afghanistan to keep the Afghans safe and help train the Afghan police, and the Irish Guards' Desert Rats forces took Basrah in a blaze of glory. These brilliant achievements can be described as a continuation of the glory of the British Empire. In addition to combat duties, the Household Division also performed ceremonial duties such as parading foreign heads of state when they were received by the Queen as a mark of respect for foreign guests, guiding the Sovereign's carriage at the opening of Parliament, Trooping the Colour Ceremony on the Sovereign's official birthday each year. The Massed Bands of the Household Division is also responsible for the annual Beating Retreat and numerous musical performances. The combat duties add to the honour of the Household Division, and the ceremonial duties are the embodiment of that honour. The above duties of the Household Division represent an honourable and practical presence, reflecting the British tradition of cherishing their tradition and glory.

In 2020, as the new coronavirus spread from China to the rest of the world, the British government decided to suspend the changing of the guard ceremony at Buckingham Palace, St James Palace and Windsor Castle. After a long absence of almost two years, the Household divisions, wearing bearskin hats, are back on duty under the watchful eye of the public and visitors. Many people believe that the monarchy is a symbol of an ancient tradition that should be abolished when progressives are in the power. But Britain's constitutional monarchy is a symbol of modern democratic constitutionalism, combined with the best traditions of British conservatism. Wearing the traditional military uniform to carry out the duties of the state and protect the sacred modern monarch is an honour, not a burden, for every soldier in the Household Divisions. Various countries around the world have ceremonial changing of the guard, often symbolically. In Taiwan, the Chiang Kai-shek Memorial Hall and the Tzuhu Presidential Mausoleum are home to the Three Armies’ Guard of Honour of the Republic of China, guarding the revolutionary martyrs who founded the republic; Tomb of the Unknown Soldier (Могила Неизвестного Солдата) in Moscow, Russia, bears the inscription: "Your Name is Unknown, Your Dead is Immortal” (Имя твоё неизвестно, подвиг твой бессмертен). The Kremlin Regiment's Guard of Honour who guarded Lenin's tomb in the period of Soviet Union have been redirected to this site to guard soldiers who gave their lives to defend their country during the Soviet-German War; At Arlington National Cemetery in the USA, the 3rd United States Infantry Regiment, known as "The Old Guard", has been guarding military graves since 1948; as an old empire that valued tradition and honour, the British imperial guard, as the sovereign's personal as the private army of the monarch, the British Royal Guard was also required to guard the monarch. The history of the Household Divisions as guardians of the monarchy dates back to the English Civil War. King Charles II of England was expelled from England by the Parliamentary forces of Cromwell and spent nearly nine years in exile on the European continent. In 1656, noblemen organised a private army to protect the king in exile. After the restoration of the kingdom of England, the change of the Guard ceremony took place at Whitehall Palace and St James's Palace, which was the residential palace of the monarch and his court in London. However, after Queen Victoria moved to Buckingham Palace in 1837, the changing of the guard ceremony took place there, and some of the guards at Whitehall Palace and St James's Palace continued to carry out their duties. The guards were required to guard Buckingham Palace, St James's Palace and Windsor Castle, places where the monarch was always present. Buckingham Palace is used as an example, as it is the Queen's office and residence. The changing of the guard ceremony is carried out by the five main guards on a rotating basis, the Grenadier Guards, the Coldstream Guard, the Scots Guard, the Welsh Guard and the Irish Guard. The Changing of the Guard ceremony usually takes place at 11 am, daily in the summer months and every other day in the winter months. At each change of guard, the marching band plays in front and leads the way for the guards, whose number is determined by the presence or absence of the monarch. The guards depart from the Horse Guards Parade, where the annual Trooping the Colour is held to celebrate the monarch's official birthday. The guards then march from the Mall along St James's Park towards Buckingham Palace. The guards marched against the wind in defence of the monarchy and democracy, in majestic form, with a neat, powerful and concise pace, to the strains of military music. Democracy and monarchy have never been opposites, but democracy and dictatorial tyranny are. In the constitutional tradition of Britain's uncodified constitution, if the position of the monarch represents the interests and symbols of the nation, then the gallant guardsman from the Household Divisions, charged with the duty of defending the monarch, is always the guardian of the glory of the Empire.

"Sooner or later, the Royal troops will take over the sea and the mountains, and the thunderstorm will sprout.” Britain is a constitutional monarchy, the Parliament, and Prime Minister hold the real power. However, the Queen, as head of state of the United Kingdom and the Commonwealth of Nations, not only enjoys symbolic status but also has the legal power to dissolve Parliament and appoint ministers in the government, even if she does not use that power. Despite the disintegration of the British Empire during the decolonisation process after World War II, the Queen, as the monarch of the former empire, has very high honorary status at home and abroad. The Ceremony of Trooping the Colour has been an annual military celebration since the 18th century when the birthday of King George III was celebrated as a tradition of the British monarch. Trooping the Colour is carried out by each of the regiments of the British monarch's personal forces, which is, the Household Divisions. It also consists of five-Foot Regiments, two Household Cavalry regiments, a Horse Artillery and The King's Troop. Each year the ceremonies are conducted by a different battalion of the regiment, with the 1st Battalion of the Scots Guards in charge in 2021 due to the COVID-19. Inside Windsor Castle the Highland bagpipes were played, Bearskin top hats were worn, and military music was played as they marched forward to pay tribute to the Queen on her official birthday. Trooping the Colour is held on the first Saturday in June. In the morning, the Queen and members of the Royal Family put on their army and navy uniforms and marched from Buckingham Palace through the Mall to the ground of Horse Guards Parade near Whitehall to inspect the troops. The Queen was greeted by the massed band playing the British national anthem God Save the Queen and the audience rose to pay their tributes to the Queen. The massed band of the Household Divisions will then perform a Slow March and a Quick March. The slow march will feature Les Huguenots March, a tribute to the French Protestants who were persecuted by the Catholic Church in 17th century France, while the quick march is variable. The drummer sounds the drummer’s call, and the commander gives the order to march off. The 1st Battalion of the Regiment marched forward under the famous military tunes of the British Grenadiers, symbolising their march on Napoleon, the monster of Europe, on the battlefields of Waterloo, and performed the royal salute with 8-bars of the National Anthem. After this part of the ceremony, the 1st Battalion returned to their posts. Afterwards, the whole battalion marched in a slow march past under the marches of Scipio, the Garb of Old Gaul and Figaro. During the Queen's inspection, the 1st Battalion showed the Queen their flag as a token of their respect to Her Majesty the Queen. After the slow march, it was time for the Quick March. In 2021, the Scots Guards, together with the Grenadier Guards and the Coldstream Guards, marched forward to play Highland Laddie, the British Grenadiers and Milanollo March. These pieces of military music symbolise the cultural background of each regiment and the military traditions behind them. After Household Divisions had completed its march, the cavalry regiments and cavalry artillery marched in, to pay tribute to Her Majesty. Germany and Britain seemed to share the same military tradition, with the Royal Cavalry Band sounding two big drums and playing Prussia’s Glory and Lifeguard March to celebrate the Queen's official birthday. Finally, the commander asked the Queen for permission to complete the ceremony and to march off from the ground, the permission then was granted by Her Majesty. The Queen left the parade ground, escorted by the Household Divisions. Her Majesty returned to Buckingham Palace through the Mall, where she was cheered and greeted on the balcony by the British people and those who admire her glories.

Many people think that the 'Household Divisions' referred only to the Grenadier Guards, but in fact, the Household Divisions are comprised of five Foot Guard Regiments, two Household Regiments, one Horse Artillery and The King's Troop. Artillery and The King's Troop. The five-foot regiments of the Household Divisions are the Grenadier Guards, the Scots Guards, the Welsh Guards, the Irish Guards, and the Coldstream Guards; two cavalry regiments, the Life Guards and the Royal Blue Guards (Royal Horse Guards and 1st Dragoons); and the Royal Horse Artillery and The King's Troop). The Scots Guards, Welsh Guards and Irish Guards are recruited in Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland, while the Grenadier Guards, the Coldstream Guards and other cavalry and artillery guards are recruited nationally. It is worth noting that although the public image of the Household Divisions is that of guarding the palace and carrying out ceremonial duties such as guarding the Buckingham Palace or Trooping the Colour Ceremony (the Queen's birthday parade), the Household Divisions, as part of the British Army, is also deployed overseas on a daily basis to carry out In recent times, it has been deployed to the Iraq War, the Afghanistan War and many others in the Modern History of Britain. The role of the Household Divisions was not merely ceremonial but was in the nature of the British Army and the Sovereign's Guard and was responsible for ceremonial duties. This is different from the situation in China, where the three military ceremonial guards only practised marching and performed ceremonial duties and had no practical experience in combat. Although the British Army supported the republican parliamentary faction (the so-called "Roundhead") during the English Civil War and served Oliver Cromwell, it did not prevent the British Army from having the title of "Royal" as the Royal Navy and the Royal Air Force did, but it did not prevent the rest of the British Army, including the regiments and guards of the Household Divisions, from having the title of "Royal". This did not prevent the other regiments and guards of the British Army, including regiments from the Household Divisions, from having the title of "Royal". The Blues and Royals, whose full name is "The First Royal Dragoon Guards", was created by Cromwell’s command during the Civil War but went on to support the restoration of the reign of the British Crown and was given the title "Royal" as part of its cherished military honour and tradition.

The Virgin Queen Unexpected coronation Henry VIII's second wife, Anna Boleyn, gave birth to Elizabeth, but she was executed two years later. Elizabeth the first was crowned at Westminster Abbey due to her sister's severe health condition. "My Lordes the lawe of nature moveth mee to sorrowe for my Sister, the burthen that is fallen upon me maketh me amazed... meane to direct all my accions by good advise and counseill" The Red Rose was melted with the White Elizabeth was depicted with a light skin tone with red cheeks. This entails three characteristics of the Queen: the 'legitimate' successor of the Houses of Lancaster and York; a virtue of loyalty to her people as her husband. And practically, as a cover-up of her faded beauty. Marriage Question Elizabeth never married even though she fancied several males in her court. Her childhood sweetheart Robert Dudley was the most evident candidate. However, conservative peers such as William Cecil disapprove of the Queen's consideration to marry Dudley. Political marriage was common among the European royal families as they could consolidate their reputation and benefit. Elizabeth solely rejected Philip II of Spain due to her sister's marriage experience. Spanish Armada The Protestant Dutch rebels received some English military aid to resist Spanish control. In 1587, Sir Francis Drake also commanded the English navy to assault the Spanish ports and vessels in the Caribbean sea. The Spanish Armada decided to take revenge at the coast of southeast England, but it was destructively defeated due to miscalculations and English naval tactics, which has enhanced England's diplomatic status. Struggle with Mary, Queen of Scots Mary (Queen of Scots) was Elizabeth’s relative and was once considered the heir of the English throne. Mary had three marriages and gave birth to the future James the first of England. As Mary claimed to possess the English crown, she was detained in England for 19 years and plotted to assassinate Elizabeth. Elizabeth eventually executed Mary in Feb 1587. They were buried side-by-side at Westminster Abbey as Elizabeth desired to restore kinship in the afterlife. Overseas expansion The expansion of the East India Company (EIC) benefited from the Expedition to North America during Elizabeth's reign. Sir Humphery Gilbert, who sailed across the Atlantic sea, named the first British colony as "Virginia" to commemorate the Virgin Queen- Elizabeth the first. The EIC received a royal charter from Queen Elizabeth in late 1600 to monopolize trading within East of the Cape of Good Hope and West of the Straits of Magellan. Sir James Lancaster initiated the first expedition to the East and started trading with the South East Asian states. This shaped the golden foundation of the future British Empire.

The defender of Europe To cope with the military threat Alexander I had to resolve the foreign military threats because the Ottoman Empire declared war on the Russian Empire in an attempt to recapture the lost territories with French support. Mikhail Kutuzov, the Field Marshal of the Russian Empire, defeated and captured the Turkish troops to confront Napoleon's military ambition. War of the Third Coalition Alexander I decided to join the War of the Third Coalition in spite of Kutuzov’s objection. Although ¼ of the expedition force and Russian generals sacrificed their lives, the Russian suffered a massive defeat. Alexander I swore to the god that he would take revenge in the future. War of the Fourth Coalition The Russian participated in the War of the Fourth Coalition one year later. Due to an enormous French army and innovative military tactics, the Russians were defeated at the Battle of Friedland. Napoleon and Alexander I signed a mutual treaty to end wars and form a military alliance. An outbreak of full-scale war The short term peace could not prevent further military conflicts between the two countries. Napoleon once again invaded Russia with full national power. Although the French Army swept over the Russian territories, the Russian soldiers set the land on fire during a military retreat so the French got inadequate daily supplies. Unite as one Alexander I delivered a motivational speech to his people when the French were about to invade Moscow. “The Russian people unite as one! Pick up your weapon and wipe out all invaders!”. Kutuzov was also appointed as the Field Marshal of all Russian Army to fight against the French aggressors. Scorched earth tactics-anti-attack The French could not collect enough daily supply due to the Russian scorched earth tactics. As the French army heavily suffered from contagious diseases and extreme weather, Alexander I ordered 400,000 Russian troops to recapture the lost territories and liberate the French-occupied regions. After the military defeat of the First French Empire, the Russian rolled out the red carpet to welcome Alexander I and his troops. A formidable empire Under Alexander I’s physical training scheme, the Russian people became courageous and disciplined in case of wars. The Russian Empire had the largest troops in Europe but this intensified financial burdens and internal corruption. Alexander I rejected liberal reform and conducted political centralisation yet he also pursued “equality before the law” to alleviate the crime rate. Alexander I successfully reinvigorated the European monarchy and suppressed the rise of liberalism after the ultimate defeat of Napoleon. He gained unprecedented respect from the European nobles but the people had very limited chances to alleviate social equality.

The cause of WW2 can generally be separated into remote and proximate causes. Remote Cause: Weimar Republic (1918-1933) 1. A harsh Treaty of Versailles: Germany and its former allies had to pay reparation to the winners and suffered from political isolation after WW1. The German armed force was minimized to 100,000 men and not allowed to possess any air or heavy force. A revanchism was being spread among Germans. 2. An economic collapse: The Germans had to compensate for the 100 million gold mark in accordance with the Treaty of Versailles. The occupation of the Ruhr area became the alternative compensation to France and Belgium. Hyperinflation was incurred as the Weimar Republic increased monetary supply to save its economy. The Great Depression also exacerbated the economic instability in Germany when international trade. 3. The rise of nationalism: Under the leadership of Adolf Hitler, the National Socialist German Workers' Party represented the fear of Communism, the master race and the desire for living space. Proximate Cause: Nazi Germany (1933-1939) 1. Economic Recovery: The Nazi Party has direct access to the economic trade for retaining the foreign exchange reserves. Most german goods were exported to other countries in return for oil and steel to re-establish the German army. 2. Rearmament: Nazi Germany didn’t comply with the Treaty and started re-establishing its military force. The recruitment of 3M soldiers and the invention of modern military equipment were ready to merge and seize foreign lands. 3. The division of diplomacy: The Italians were economically embargoed by the British and French due to the invasion of Abyssinia. The Axis was formed when Italy became an ally with Germany. The Anti-Comintern Pact was also signed by Germany and the Japanese Empire. Germany became one of the biggest economic partners with Yugoslavia and Romania to strengthen the German socio-economic power in Europe. 4. Appeasement: The UK decided to have a geopolitical concession to the Axis power in order to avoid military conflict. Nazi Germany successfully seizes Austria, Sudetenland and Rhine area. The German seemed ready to kickstart a further ambitious invasion.

A political and military genius Early career Napoleon started shining after the Siege of Toulon and the defeat of royalist rebellion against the French National convention by using cannon fire in the tube streets of Paris. Napoleon was appointed as the Commander of the Army of Italy. “Great ambition is the passion of a great character. Those endowed with it may perform very good or very bad acts. All depends on the principles which direct them.” He launched military campaigns against Austria to wipe out its influence in Southern Germany and Italy. Egyptian expedition In 1798, Napoleon invaded Ottoman-ruled Egypt, attempting to block British trade routes to India. He also brought a group of 167 scientists to investigate Africa. They discovered the Rosetta Stone, and their work was published in the Description de l'Égypte in 1809. The army was ordered to construct a Suez canal for providing supplies to the French expedition. Sir Horatio Nelson captured and destroyed the entire French fleet in the Battle of the Nile. Due to the British naval threat and internal political instability, Napoleon had no choice but to retreat to France with his two surviving French battleships. Wars against the Coalitions The War against the Third Coalition was an enormous success for Napoleon. The Russian and Austrian tasted a massive defeat after the Battle of Austerlitz (the Battle of Three Emperors). The Austrians lost control over Germany and Italy and compensated 40 million francs after the Treaty of Pressburg. The Prussians attempted to resist Napoleon's sphere of influence in Germany in the fourth coalition. At the twin battles of Jena and Auerstedt, Napoleon's Grand Armee and Corps military organization defeated the Prussians. Shortly afterwards, the Russian reinforcement was also defeated by Napoleon at the Battle of Friedland and led to the Congress of Erfurt. Both emperors met and formed a short-lived alliance. Napoleon suffered an unprecedented defeat in the Wars in the Spanish Peninsula and the Invasion of the Russian empire. The French army suffered huge casualties due to deadly diseases, extreme weather and Emperor Alexander’s strategic warfare. The war with the sixth coalition exposed his weakness of relying on young conscripts and inexperienced generals, thereby incurring a defeat in Germany and Spain in 1814. The Civil Code of the French The French legal system was in chaos with years of revolutions and upheaval. Napoleon successfully composed all laws of post-revolutionary France into a consistent piece. The Civic Code abolished the privileges of the aristocracy, assured property rights, and created greater social equality. This has become an inspiration for civil law nowadays. Long term influence outside France Napoleonic wars indirectly enlightened nationalism in Germany and Latin America. The dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire and the Peninsula War weakened Australian, Spanish and Portuguese influence over their overseas territories. These caused the Mexican War of Independence, the peoples’ revolution in 1848 and the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867.